[Cryptographic hash functions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function) take data strings of any length (like a text message or file) and output a fixed-size code, often called a "hash" or "digest." This hash acts like a unique identifier for the original data.
- ["Pre-image resistance"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preimage_attack): Given a hash value, it should be very difficult to determine the original data it represents.
- ["Collision resistance"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collision_resistance): It should be very difficult to find two distinct pieces of data that map to the same hash value.
[Symmetric-key cryptography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric-key_algorithm) uses the same cryptographic key for both encryption and decryption, unlike asymmetric cryptography where a pair of keys is used: a public key for encryption and a corresponding private key for decryption. Symmetric-key cryptographic systems support *encryption/decryption* operations.
Symmetric-key cryptography has major benefits: It is much faster than public-key cryptography (see below). Also, most current symmetric cryptographic algorithms are considered quantum-resistant[^postquantum].
```{admonition}
:class: warning
I am not convinced that this information is helpful but, if it remains, perhaps we need this additional statement: "That is, symmetric-key cryptographic mechanisms are currently considered to be resilient against known computer threats, providing a measure of assurance in the evolving landscape of cryptography and quantum computing."
[^postquantum]: Daniel J. Bernstein (2009). ["Introduction to post-quantum cryptography" (PDF)](http://www.pqcrypto.org/www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9783540887010-c1.pdf) states that: "many important classes of cryptographic systems", including secret-key cryptographic mechanisms like AES "[..] are believed to resist classical computers and quantum computers." (pages 1, 2).
[Hybrid cryptosystems](hybrid_cryptosystems) combine the advantages of symmetric-key cryptography with a separate mechanism for managing the shared secret, using public-key cryptography.
Symmetric-key cryptography is used in OpenPGP in three contexts:
- most prominently, as part of a hybrid cryptosystem to encrypt and decrypt data,
- to encrypt [password-protected private key material](https://www.ietf.org/archive/id/draft-ietf-openpgp-crypto-refresh-10.html#name-secret-key-encryption), and
- for [password-protected data encryption](https://www.ietf.org/archive/id/draft-ietf-openpgp-crypto-refresh-10.html#name-symmetric-key-encrypted-ses), a less commonly used feature of the standard.
[^sessionkey]: In OpenPGP version 6, the ["Version 2 Symmetrically Encrypted Integrity Protected Data Packet Format"](https://www.ietf.org/archive/id/draft-ietf-openpgp-crypto-refresh-10.html#name-version-2-symmetrically-enc) requires that a "message key" is derived from a "session key." In contrast, up to OpenPGP version 4, and in version 6 when using ["Version 1 Symmetrically Encrypted Integrity Protected Data Packet Format"](https://www.ietf.org/archive/id/draft-ietf-openpgp-crypto-refresh-10.html#name-version-1-symmetrically-enc), the "session key" was used directly as a symmetric encryption key.
[Authenticated encryption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authenticated_encryption) offers more than just confidentiality; it ensures data integrity too.
In OpenPGP version 6, AEAD replaced the MDC[^MDC] mechanism to address malleability. In earlier OpenPGP versions, malicious alterations to ciphertext might go unnoticed. AEAD guards against such undetected changes.
[^MDC]: In OpenPGP version 4, a mechanism called MDC (Modification Detection Code) was introduced to serve a comparable purpose as AEAD. While MDC is a non-standard mechanism, as of this writing, there are no known attacks against the scheme.
[^efail]: A variation of the [EFAIL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EFAIL) attack can be prevented by both the MDC and AEAD mechanisms. Also see ["No, PGP is not broken, not even with the Efail vulnerabilities,"](https://proton.me/blog/pgp-vulnerability-efail) especially the section "Malleability Gadget Exfiltration Channel Attack."
[Public-key cryptography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-key_cryptography) uses asymmetric pairs of related keys. Each pair consists of a public key and a private key. These systems support encryption, decryption, and digital signature operations.
Unlike symmetric cryptography, participants are not required to pre-arrange a shared secret. In public-key cryptography, the public key material is shared openly for certain cryptographic operations, such as encryption and signature creation, while the private key, kept confidential, is used for operations like decryption and signature verification.
Each key pair comprises two components: the public key and the private key. For ease of identification, we will depict the public key in green and the private key in red throughout this document.
[Digital signatures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signature) are a fundamental mechanism of asymmetric cryptography, providing secure, mathematical means to validate the authenticity, integrity, and origin of digital messages and documents.
In OpenPGP, digital signatures have diverse applications, extending beyond mere validation of a message's origin. They can signify various intents, including certification, consent, acknowledgment, or even revocation by the signer. The multifaceted nature of "statements" conveyed through digital signatures in cryptographic protocols is wide-ranging but crucial, allowing third parties to inspect/evaluate these statements for authenticity and intended purpose.
